Macrophages rely on lysosomes to balance microbial killing with self-protection, generating reactive oxygen and nitrogen species during phagocytosis. Using platinum nanoelectrodes, researchers at Wuhan University tracked these reactive molecules in real time, revealing that lysosomal pH acts as a chemical dial. Acidic conditions favor hydrogen peroxide, while mild alkalinization promotes nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and nitrite. This precise pH-dependent control shapes immune responses, oxidative stress, and inflammatory signaling, offering insights for therapies targeting macrophage function.

Conifers use resin to protect themselves. This resin contains diterpenes, which act as a natural defense against insect pests. Some of these substances existed before conifers evolved, while others developed independently in different tree species later on — presumably to protect against bark beetles. A key factor in this process is the evolutionary mechanism known as "epistasis": previous genetic changes pave the way for new defenses. These findings help us better understand the natural power of plant defenses and may lead to more sustainable plant protection methods.

Australian researchers have revealed a clear relationship between stress and increased disease risk in koalas in South East Queensland and on the New South Wales North Coast.