Why demand persists for the horn of a once near-extinct antelope

Family traditions, misconceptions about where it comes from, and a belief that remedies sold in shops are government-approved help explain continued demand for saiga antelope horn in Singapore, according to a University of Oxford-led study published in People and Nature.

For more than 2,000 years, saiga antelope horn has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as a “cooling” remedy for fevers and sore throats. In Singapore it is still readily available in TCM shops, in supermarkets, even in vending machines.

By the late 1990s, saiga numbers had fallen to around 20,000, leaving the species close to extinction. Males were hunted and killed for their horns, which was one of the main causes of the decline. With too few males left, breeding fell sharply. Since then, substantial conservation efforts have helped populations recover, but continued demand raises concerns about poaching and illegal trade.

To understand why people continue to buy saiga horn products, the researchers ran focus groups with Chinese Singaporeans. They found participants were open to alternatives such as paracetamol and chrysanthemum tea, but had not given up saiga horn. For many, it was a habit passed down from parents to children, and some had even taken it for COVID-19 symptoms, without considering the disease risks of wildlife-derived medicines.

The researchers also uncovered misconceptions about where the horn comes from. Some participants did not realise it came from a wild animal. Others believed horns could be removed without harming the antelope, or that they would grow back.

In Singapore, horn from historical stocks can still be sold legally as whole horns, shavings or ready-made “saiga horn water”. Some participants interpreted this legal availability as a sign that products had been assessed and approved by the government, and were therefore safe and ethically acceptable. This appeared to reduce concerns about the conservation implications of their purchases.

As one participant put it: “If it is available at TCM shops, I won’t question it.”

Lead author Xiaotong Cai, of the University of Oxford’s Department of Biology, said: “The issue is not necessarily a lack of regulation, but a gap between what people think legal availability means and what they understand about where saiga products come from. Consumers need clear, accessible information about the wildlife origins of these products so they can make informed choices.”

The team asked women who had bought or used saiga horn in the past year to design their own awareness campaigns. Their ideas included short social media videos showing how the horn is obtained, campaigns promoting familiar remedies such as herbal teas, and clearer product labels.

Senior author Dr Amy Hinsley, of the Oxford Martin Programme on the Wildlife Trade, explained: “Consumers bring knowledge, experiences and perspectives that researchers and conservation practitioners may not have. Making those perspectives central to designing interventions makes solutions more relevant and gives the people most affected a meaningful role in shaping them.”

Co-author Dr Diogo Veríssimo, of Oxford’s Environmental Change Institute, added: “Too often, conservation campaigns are designed around what experts think people should know, rather than what actually motivates their behaviour. By involving consumers directly in the design process, we can develop solutions that are more relevant to their everyday lives and more likely to be accepted. The next step is to test whether these ideas actually change purchasing and consumption behaviour, rather than assuming that raising awareness will be enough.”

Notes to editors

The paper: ‘Tackling saiga horn consumption in Singapore: from consumer insights to intervention co-design’ has been published in People and Nature: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70470

Authors: Xiaotong Cai, Diogo Veríssimo, Chloe Yun Yi Tan, L. Roman Carrasco, Sifan Hu and Amy Hinsley, from the University of Oxford (Interdisciplinary Centre for Conservation Science and Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Biology; Environmental Change Institute; Oxford Martin Programme on the Wildlife Trade), the National University of Singapore, and the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Funding: The research was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Images: Photographs of saiga horn products on sale in Singapore, including ready-made saiga horn water from a vending machine, are available.

Media contacts: Sara Davis, Communications and Media Manager, Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford sara.davis@oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk

Q&A

How was the study carried out? It was a qualitative study in two stages. In October 2023, the team ran four focus groups with 22 Chinese Singaporeans. Two groups (11 people) were women aged 36–59, the main buyers of saiga horn in Singapore. Two mixed groups (11 people) included men and women aged 21–80, who were not recruited on the basis of using saiga horn. In February 2024, two co-design workshops brought together 18 women aged 36–59 who had bought or used saiga horn in the previous 12 months.

Is it legal to sell saiga horn in Singapore? Yes. In Singapore, domestic trade in saiga horn is permitted for pre-Convention stocks or specimens legally imported with the necessary CITES permits. Health regulations vary by product type: raw horn and horn shavings sold as traditional medicinal materials are not subject to pre-market approval by the Health Sciences Authority (HSA), although applicable safety and quality requirements still apply. Chinese proprietary medicines containing saiga horn are subject to HSA product listing, dealer licensing, and safety and quality requirements.

How threatened is the saiga antelope? Numbers fell to around 20,000 in the late 1990s, and the species was listed as Critically Endangered. Following conservation efforts, populations have recovered and it is now listed as Near Threatened.

What alternatives did participants use? Participants mentioned 24 alternatives to saiga horn. The most common were chrysanthemum tea and paracetamol.

Which existing approaches did consumers think would work best? Workshop participants ranked government regulation as the most effective, followed by media campaigns and endorsements from celebrities and health experts.

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