New study shows early motherhood carries wage penalty, while delaying pays off

A woman’s early career pregnancy decision may shape her financial future for decades, according to new research co-led by Eden King, the Lynette S. Autrey Professor of Psychology at Rice University, and Nicola Lawrence-Thomas, a lecturer in work psychology at the University of Sheffield. The study, one of the first to examine long-term earnings across different early reproductive paths, found that women who became mothers early in life earned significantly less over time than those who had an abortion or never became pregnant.

The findings come at a time when reproductive rights and access are shifting nationwide, raising new questions about how policy changes intersect with women’s careers, economic mobility and workforce participation. King said the idea for the project emerged after reading language in the 2022 Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization ruling asserting that access to reproductive autonomy has no effect on women’s economic standing.

“Just seeing those words in print made me question their legitimacy,” King said. “I wondered, is that true? Are there data to answer that question?”

The research team turned to more than 40 years of national survey data following nearly 6,000 women from adolescence through midlife. Over a 30-year period, women who delayed motherhood earned between $495,000 and $556,000 more than women who became mothers early in their careers.

The study, published in the Journal of Applied Psychology, revealed clear and consistent patterns. Across every model, even after controlling for age, race, marital status, education and working hours, early motherhood was associated with the lowest long-term earnings. Meanwhile, women who had abortions or who did not become pregnant showed similar wage trajectories and earned substantially more over time.

King said the magnitude of the differences aligned with what she has seen throughout two decades of studying the “motherhood penalty.”

“If you have a child early in life, you’re going to earn less,” she said. “That pattern held even when we accounted for hours worked and other background factors. Motherhood fundamentally changes the trajectory of women’s careers, especially when it happens early.”

Researchers attribute much of the long-term wage gap to disrupted career continuity, including fewer opportunities for advancement, limited job mobility and slower accumulation of experience during the years when earnings typically grow most quickly. The analysis also suggests education plays a key role with women who had abortions more likely to remain in school and sustain early career momentum.

King said those patterns help explain why early motherhood can have lasting effects on women’s economic trajectories.

“Lawrence-Thomas said the findings underscore how pregnancy during early adulthood often coincides with pivotal decisions about education, employment and long-term career pathways.

“Women often stand at a crossroads when faced with pregnancy,” she said. “Those who pursue motherhood are frequently subject to the motherhood penalty — a set of disadvantages that can hinder earning potential and create long-term career barriers.”

The study points to several strategies that could help protect or improve women’s long-term economic stability.

• Supporting reproductive planning:
  Access to contraception, employer-provided health insurance that covers reproductive care and assistance navigating care in restricted states may help women time pregnancy in alignment with career goals.

• Supporting working parents:
  Paid parental leave, subsidized child care and job-protected leave programs can reduce the financial fallout of early motherhood and help women maintain career continuity.

“If we don’t provide these kinds of supports, women are going to continue to be subordinate to men in their access to economic resources,” King said.

King said she hopes the research opens the door to deeper exploration of how state-level policy differences, workplace culture and family-supportive practices influence women’s economic pathways today.

“Pregnancy doesn’t always lead to motherhood,” she said. “Abortion is a distinct, understudied experience that affects careers differently. If we want a complete understanding of women’s economic lives, we need to include it in the conversation.”