Three coupling states between climate and society across economies and eras (IMAGE)
Caption
By re-contextualizing the Environmental Kuznets Curve, the figure maps national trajectories of per-capita CO₂ emissions against per-capita GDP into three states: “strong coupling” (post-peak economies with growth and declining emissions), “weak coupling” (pre-peak economies with growth still tied to rising emissions), and “de-coupling” (an “anti-EKC” state of fossil-fuel-dependent or structurally poor economies). Panels show developed economies in 1899–1959 and 1960–2023, developing economies in 1960–2023, and a conceptual synthesis of the three states.
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